Fulvoplumierin

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The African continent is home to a large number of higher plant species used over centuries for many applications, which include treating and managing diseases such as HIV. Due to the overwhelming prevalence and incidence rates of HIV, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, it is necessary to develop new and affordable treatments. Aim of the study: The article provides an extensive overview of the status on investigation of plants from the southern African region with ethnobotanical use for treating HIV or HIV-related symptoms, or the management of HIV. The review also provide an account of the in vitro assays, anti-viral activity and phytochemistry of these plants. Materials and methods: Peer-reviewed articles investigating plants with ethnobotanical information for the treatment or management of HIV or HIV-related symptoms from the southern African region were acquired from Science Direct, PubMed central and Google Scholar. The selection criteria was that (1) plants should have a record of traditional/popular use for infectious or viral diseases, HIV treatment or symptoms similar to HIV infection, (2) if not traditionally/popularly used, plants should be closely related to plants with popular use and HIV activity identified by means of in vitro assays, (3) plants should have been identified scientifically, (4) should be native to southern African region and (5) anti-HIV activity should be within acceptable ranges. Results: Many plants in Africa and specifically the southern African region have been used for the treatment of HIV or HIV related symptoms and have been investigated suing various in vitro techniques. In vitro assays using HIV enzymes such as reverse transcriptase (RT), integrase (IN) and protease (PR), proteins or cell-based assays have been employed to validate the use of these plants with occasional indication of the selectivity index (SI) or therapeutic index (TI), with only one study, that progressed to in vivo testing. The compounds identified from plants from southern Africa is similar to compounds identified from other regions of the world, and the compounds have been divided into three groups namely (1) flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, (2) terpenoids and terpenoid glycosides and (3) phenolic acids and their conjugated forms. Conclusions: An investigation of the plants from southern Africa with ethnobotanical use for the treatment of HIV, management of HIV or HIV-related symptoms, therefore provide a very good analysis of the major assays employed and the anti-viral compounds and compound groups identified. The similarity in identified anti-viral compounds worldwide should support the progression from in vitro studies to in vivo testing in development of affordable and effective anti-HIV agents for countries with high infection and mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Plumeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae) is a deciduous, commonly ornamental, tropical plant grown in home premises, parks, gardens, graveyards, because of its beautiful and attractive flowers of various colours and size. The different parts of the plant are used traditionally to treat various diseases and conditions like leprosy, inflammation, diabetic mellitus, ulcers, wounds, itching, acne, toothache, earache, tongue cleaning, pain, asthma, constipation and antifertility. Aim of the review: The main aim of this review is to provide an overview and critically analyze the reported ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and toxicological studies of P. rubra and to identify the remaining gaps and thus supply a basis for further investigations. The review also focuses towards drawing attention of people and researchers about the wide spread pharmaceutical properties of the plant for its better utilization in the coming future. Material and methods: All the relevant data and information on P. rubra was gathered using various databases such as PubMed, Springer, Taylor and Francis imprints, NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information), Science direct, Google scholar, Chemspider, SciFinder, research and review articles from peer-reviewed journals and unpublished data such as Phd thesis, etc. Some other 'grey literature' sources such as webpages, ethnobotanical books, chapters, wikipedia were also studied. Results: More than 110 chemical constituents have been isolated from P. rubra including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, alkaloids, glycosides, fatty acid esters, carbohydrates, animo acids, lignan, coumarin, volatile oils, etc. The important chemical constituents responsible for pharmacological activities of the plant are fulvoplumierin, plumieride, rubrinol, lupeol, oleanolic acid, stigmasterol, taraxasteryl acetate, plumieride-p-E-coumarate, rubranonoside, rubrajalellol, plumericin, isoplumericin, etc. The plant possess a wide range of pharmacological activities present namely antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anticancer, anthelmintic, antifertility and many other activities. Conclusion: P. rubra is a valuable medicinal source and further study in this topic can validate the traditional and ethnobotanical use of the plant. However, many aspects of the plant have not been studied yet. The pharmacological activity of active chemical constituent isolated from the plant is proven only for a couple of activities hence, lack of bio-guided isolation strategies is observed. Further studies on bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action and structural activity relationship studies of isolated pure compounds will contribute more in understanding their pharmacological effects. Higher doses of plant extracts are administered to experimental animals, therefore their toxicity and side effects in humans are needed to be thoroughly studied, although no side effect or toxicity is seen or observed in experimental animals. Studies are also essential to investigate the long term in vivo toxicity and clinical efficacy of the plant.

Many compounds of plant origin have been identified that inhibit different stages in the replication cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): 1) virus adsorption: chromone alkaloids (schumannificine), isoquinoline alkaloids (michellamines), sulphated polysaccharides and polyphenolics, flavonoids, coumarins (glycocoumarin, licopyranocoumarin) phenolics (caffeic acid derivatives, galloyl acid derivatives, catechinic acid derivatives), tannins and triterpenes (glycyrrhizin and analogues, soyasaponin and analogues); 2) virus-cell fusion: lectins (mannose- and N-acetylglucosamine-specific) and triterpenes (betulinic acid and analogues); 3) reverse transcription; alkaloids (benzophenanthridines, protoberberines, isoquinolines, quinolines), coumarins (calanolides and analogues), flavonoids, phloroglucinols, lactones (protolichesterinic acid), tannins, iridoids (fulvoplumierin) and triterpenes; 4) integration: coumarins (3-substituted-4-hydroxycoumarins), depsidones, O-caffeoyl derivatives, lignans (arctigenin and analogues) and phenolics (curcumin); 5) translation: single chain ribosome inactivating proteins (SCRIP's); 6) proteolytic cleavage (protease inhibition): saponins (ursolic and maslinic acids), xanthones (mangostin and analogues) and coumarins; 7) glycosylation: alkaloids including indolizidines (castanospermine and analogues), piperidines (1-deoxynojirimicin and analogues) and pyrrolizidines (australine and analogues); 8) assembly/release: naphthodianthrones (hypericin and pseudohypericin), photosensitisers (terthiophenes and furoisocoumarins) and phospholipids. The target of action of several anti-HIV substances including alkaloids (O-demethyl-buchenavianine, papaverine), polysaccharides (acemannan), lignans (intheriotherins, schisantherin), phenolics (gossypol, lignins, catechol dimers such as peltatols, naphthoquinones such as conocurvone) and saponins (celasdin B, Gleditsia and Gymnocladus saponins), has not been elucidated or does not fit in the proposed scheme. Only a very few of these plant-derived anti-HIV products have been used in a limited number of patients suffering from AIDS viz. glycyrrhizin, papaverine, trichosanthin, castanospermine, N-butyl-1-deoxynojirimicin and acemannan.